Indian music originated from the Vedas (4000 - 1000 B.C.). Four in number, the Vedas are the most sacred texts which contain about a thousand hymns. Music evolved from these hymns and the music was common throughout the length and breadth of India until about the 12th century. During this time, due to external influences of the Muslim rulers that invaded India from the Northwest, the music in the North underwent several changes whereas the music in the South continued to develop along the same lines without any external influence. This resulted in the birth of two distinct systems of music: Karnatic or South Indian and Hindustani or North Indian. Despite the fact that they have the same roots and have several concepts that are common, they are distinctly different and unique in their own ways.
The time from 1300 - 1800 A.D. is considered to be very crucial in the development of North Indian music. India underwent a series of invasions from the Northwest and this resulted in external influences on the civilization and the existing music. This was also the time when the Mughal emperors were making their presence felt in the Northern part of India. Allauddin Khilji was the ruler of Delhi and this was the time (1296-1316) when the music of the North made great progress.
In the court of Allauddin Khilji was the great singer-scholar, Amir Khusru who was responsible for creating new Ragas, Talas, introducing new instruments and contributing greatly to the progress of music. To him goes the credit of being the first Turk to infuse elements of his native music into the existing system in India and creating new music.
It is interesting to note, however, that the Muslim rulers established rule only in the Northern part of India. They never did come to the South. Hence the socio-political and cultural changes that were taking place were restricted to the North. The South remained unaffected by these changes. The music continued to develop along the same lines and came to be known as Karnatic music. The music in the North came to be known as Hindustani music.
The reign of the Mughal king Akbar (1556-1605) was another significant period in the development of Hindustani music. The monarch was a great connoisseur and lover of music and had famous musicians like Baiju Bawra, Tansen, Ramdas, and Tanrang at his court. Other names worth mentioning are those of Swami Haridas and Raja Mansingh Tomar who lived around the same time. Swami Haridas, who was the Guru of Tansen was considered to be the greatest musician of his time.
Raja Mansingh Tomar, who was the king of Gwalior, was responsible for the founding of the famous Gwalior Gharana. To him also goes the credit for starting the Dhrupad style of singing.
The sixteenth century was very significant due to the synthesis of music and devotional literature, since this was the time when the saint-poets, Soordas, Tulsidas, Kabirdas, and Mirabai flourished. Their devotional songs (Bhajans) have become immortal and are very popular in India, even today.
The seventeenth century saw the reigns of the Emperors Shah Jahan and his son Aurangzeb. The former was himself a musician and a patron of the arts. The latter was a fanatic, who hated music so much that he ordered all the musical instruments to be buried! Though music received no royal patronage during his reign, music still flourished and developed due to the great musicians of the time.
During the first half of the eighteenth century Mohammad Shah Rangiley ruled as the last ruler of the Mughal dynasty. He was a great lover of music and in his court lived two very famous singers, Sadarang and Adarang. They are credited with thousands of compositions and also with popularizing the "Khyal" style of singing. Their khyals are still popular today. In the second half of the century, the Mughal rule was waning and the British were gaining a foothold. With the dissolution of the Mughal kingdom, musicians lost the royal patronage and continued to flourish on their own or through the patronage of smaller princely states.
In the twentieth century, the names of Vishnunarayan Bhatkhande and Vishnu Digambar Paluskar deserve a special mention due to their special contributions to the art of music. They established musical institutions in various parts of the country and created an interest in the general public by musical conferences. Bhatkhande: Originally a lawyer, Bhatkhande (1860-1936) was an erudite scholar who was noted for his pioneering work in compiling and publishing compositions in his six-volume publication entitled Kramik Pustak Malika. He devised a notation system to notate all the compositions. He also wrote books in Marathi, Sanskrit and English. He was the one who worked out the system of the Ten Thaats (parent scales) in the North Indian System, which is the system followed today.
Paluskar (1872-1931) was the founder of the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya. This was a milestone as there were no musical schools before this. This was founded with funds raised by concerts and from public donations. He published books with notations to be used in the school by the students. He was also responsible for giving music the social status that it had lost in the courts of the kings where musicians were looked down upon and treated very shabbily.
Raga is often described as a scale or a mode. This is an incomplete definition of the Raga. Though it is based on a scale, the concept of the Raga is more complex. Verses in the old treatises of music describe a Raga as that which gives pleasure to the mind of the listener. Every Raga has its own definite characteristics which make it easy for a discerning listener to recognize. Based on a scale of five, six, or seven notes, the Raga has special features such as melodic ornamentations (gamakas) and microtones. Importance is given to certain notes (Vadi and Samvadi). The Vadi is the most important note used in the Raga and is usually one of the notes in the first tetrachord (first one-half of the scale), whereas the Samvadi is the second most important note in the Raga and is in the second tetrachord (second one-half of the scale). There are Ragas for different times of the day, occasions, and seasons. In the North the "time theory" of certain Ragas being sung only at particular times of the day is still prevalent whereas the South has done away with this tradition. Whereas the South Indian system is based on a system of 72 parent scales (known as Melakartas) the North Indian system is based on a system of 10 parent scales known as Thaats, which were devised by Bhatkhande.
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The notes or Sapta Swaras (lit. Sapta - seven; swara - note) as they are known in North Indian music may be understood with the following table.
The primary difference in the Western and the Indian systems is that, in the West, when you refer to the pitch "A:, it always refers to a particular pitch but in Indian music, Sa only refers to the Tonic or first degree and can be any pitch since the performer has the option to choose any suitable pitch as his/her tonic - Sa. The Pa is always a perfect fifth in relation to the Sa since Indian music does not admit the concept of a diminished or augmented fifth. Thus Sa and Pa are always constant. The other five notes may be either lowered or raised giving rise to a total of twelve notes which follow in the table below.
The system of Talas (rhythmic cycles) in the North is not as systematically and mathematically worked out as the Tala system in the South. The system in the North uses a system of 175 Talas derived scientifically from seven basic Talas.
Some of the Most common Talas used in North Indian music are:
Sam is the first beat (or downbeat) of the rhythmic cycle. It is also the end because the composition always ends on the downbeat.
Khali is the next most important after Sam. It is important because it shows the musician that the Sam is approaching in order that the musicians can conclude their rhythmic patterns and "land" on the Sam.
Theka are the "bols" (drum syllables) which are assigned specifically to every rhythmic cycle which distinguishes it from another. Theka distinguishes one Tala from another Tala even though the number of beats may be the same in both Talas. For Example, Jhoomra tala and Deepchandi tala both have fourteen beats that are divided 3+4+3+4 but are distinct from each other by the theka.
Dhrupad or Dhruvapad originated in the 15th century in Gwalior during the reign of Raja Mansingh Tomar. This form is still sung today but is not very popular. The language is usually Sanskrit or Brijbhasha. This style of singing is very grand and "heavy". It is, therefore, more suitable to the male voice. The predominant Rasas (emotions) in this style of singing are "Veer" (heroism), "Shringar" (Romantic), and "Shanta" (peaceful). The Dhrupad has four sections: (1) Sthayi, (2) Antara, (3) Sanchari, and (4) Abhog. There are four different styles (Vanis): (1) Gauhar Vani, (2) Khandar Vani, (3) Dagar Vani, and (4) Nohar Vani. The most common Talas used in this style are Chautal, Teevra, Jhaptal, and Brahmatal. In this style there is no usage of Taans, but Dugan, Chaugan, Boltaan, and Gamakas are used.
As the popularity of the "khyal" style increased, it replaced the Dhrupad more and more and is now very rarely heard.
Dhamars are compositions, similar to the Dhrupad style but not as "grave". They are set to Dhamar Tala of fourteen beats and the lyrics are usually descriptions of the "Holi" Festival and the pranks of Lord Krishna who sneaks up on the Gopis, (his cow-girl devotees) drowns them in color and has them in tears!
Khyal, in Persian, literally means thought or imagination. It is the most popular classical vocal form today. It is a short composition based on a Raga, set to a particular Tala (Ektal, Jhumra, Rupak, Jhaptal, and Teental being the most common). The mood is generally romantic or devotional. It is not as rigid as the Dhrupad style. There are two types of Khyals: (1) The Bada (meaning big) or Vilambit Khyal and (2) the Chhota (small) or Drut Khyal. The former is the slow Khyal which is sung first and the latter is faster and sung in the latter part. Both Khyals have two sections: (1) Sthayi (or Asthayi) and (2) Antara. The Sthayi is usually sung in the lower or middle range of the octave and the Antara is sung usually in the middle and upper range of the octave. The Khyal emerged around the 15th century and the most well known composers of the Khyal were two brothers by the name of Sadarang and Adarang who composed thousands of Khyals and propagated them through their numerous students.
The Vilambit Khyal composition is followed by a detailed delineation of the Raga. This usually starts out in the lower range of the octave and slowly builds up to the higher octave and also builds up gradually in tempo. At the end of an improvisational passage, one comes back to the beginning of the Khyal and ends on the downbeat (Sam).
After the Khral, the Tappa came into being. It came from the Punjab and was the song of the camel-drivers. It is usually composed in Punjabi and is a fast and lively piece. It is considered a "light" piece and composed in Ragas like Kafi, Jhinjhoti, Bhairavi, Khamaj, et al.
Thumri is a light-classical form. It is usually sung in Ragas like Desh, Khamaj, Pilu, Bairavi, et al. It is not rigid like the Khyal and allows for a lot of artistic and creative freedom. In this form the performer has the license to occasionally use notes that do not belong to the Raga. It is usually sung in a medium tempo. This form originated in the courts of the Nawabs of Lucknow. There are three famous styles of Thumri singing - Lucknow, Benares and the Punjab styles. The Talas normally used are Dadra, Keherwa and Deepchandi. The emphasis, in this form, is on the emotion and the lyrics. The theme is usually that of a lover pining for her beloved or for the love of Krishna. It is a very lyrical style.
Taranas are love poems, usually in the language urdu, set to music. It is considered to be a light form of music. They are not necessarily set to any strict Raga. They usually consist of couplets which usually deal with love, pining, betrayal, fidelity, and , sometimes, may be philosophical in content. The words are of utmost importance in a Ghazal. The ghazal form is extremely popular in India today.
Bhajans are also, like Ghazals, considered to be light music and do not have to be confined to a particular Raga. They are devotional songs that are set to music. They are always in praise of deities like Rama, Krishna, et al. Bhajans written by the saint poets of the 16th century like Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabirdas, et al are still very popular in India today.